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In the case of sewage systems, Sao Paulo is also still affected by an important lack of services. This lack is of high relevance as missing sanitation services must be regarded as one of the major problems of public health and represents an important cause of infectious diseases.

As the used concepts of extreme poverty are different in the six metropolitan regions, the comparability of this indicator is also limited. The proportion of undernourished infant population has been selected, as it is considered to be a reliable indicator of extreme poverty and hunger.

The occurrence of underweight among the infant population is caused almost completely by the lack of income on the household level, meanwhile other indicators like malnutrition are influenced by education, food standards etc. Furthermore, the reduction of undernourishment is also a result of public policy campaigns that combat hunger and extreme poverty and therefore reflects important outcomes of these public actions.

Its main limitation is caused by the fact that the indicators in some of the analyzed areas are built referring to children aged 0- five and in others up to the age of 7.

It refers to households and integrates different indicators like housing conditions, access to sanitary services, education and economic capacities. Data presented in the table show the percentage of households which suffer at least one unsatisfied basic need. The last indicator of table 3 addresses the issue of health insurance coverage, both including private and public health care systems. In Santiago de Chile and Bogota, in a context of highly privatized health insurance systems the public service system still assures elevated coverage rates; nevertheless the quality of these services has to be questioned.

Based on these data, the water management and water treatment issue will be discussed in the case of Lima IV.

INEGI, cuadro 4. PNUD, Second number is an estimation of percentage of households paying electricity bills. These are used as indicators for living conditions in metropolitan areas affected by extreme poverty and deficiencies of urban planning and informal settlements.

They address the actual state of urban systems, the issues of sanity and health conditions and are related to some outcome indicators such as health indicators, like infant mortality issues. Some limitations of these indicators have to be mentioned. First of all, household sizes vary between the metropolitan cities varying between three and four persons and even higher differences are observed when comparing different areas within the same metropolitan cities, which means that the number of affected inhabitants differs from the household data shown.

The criteria that water should be available in sufficient quantity and without excessive physical effort and time should be fulfilled by using the criteria for piped water meanwhile another important issue —the affordable price— will be addressed in the chapter dedicated to consumption table Access to electricity presents the percentage of households connected to the electrical supply system.

Affiliation to health insurance, both private and public is considered as health coverage services and is considered to be a basic need. Education Education is considered to be a decisive issue in a long term development approach not only from a sustainability point of view; but also as one of the Millennium Development Goals MDG defined by the UN.

Furthermore these indicators have to be considered as crucial variables of Human Life in Latin American Cities as they reflect social mobility perspectives but also because they represent vulnerability, especially in the context of highly privatized education systems. There is little variance in adult literacy rates as all six countries have had a general school enrollment obligation for several decades.

The slight differences of the alphabetization values reflect the age structure of a population rather than the development level. Nevertheless, in the event of a coincidence of low literacy rates with a relatively young population, this variable indicates marginalization of certain social groups from any formal education.

This is the case in Lima. Therefore, one can observe a slightly lower level of alphabetization in those megacities which register a high percentage of inhabitants in informal settlements and relatively high low income immigration, such as Sao Paulo, Lima and Mexico.

School enrolment represents an important indicator of institutional failure in the context of education, as there is enrollment obligation. At the same time, this indicator is influenced by socio- spatial marginalization. Mexico, lately Buenos Aires and most of all Lima present relatively high levels of children who are not enrolled in primary education; whereas, Santiago de Chile presents almost complete enrollment, in spite of the socially segregated education system.

The value of Sao Paulo is hardly comparable to the others as it includes children until 14 years and not only the first for year as the other does. In education. DNP, Sempla, Urban Age Program 42 Calculated on the number of students only in municipal schools, total educational spending. The adult literacy rate is a ge neral indicator of development level and primary education, related also to the importance given by government to the issue of education.

Nevertheless, it is influenced most of all by the development levels and education policies in the last several decades, therefore the MDG program includes the literacy rate of year-olds. Other indicators are aimed at the analysis of education levels, access to education and performance. As there are important early productive activities of children in low-income sectors, this indicator is also influenced by socio-economic status. These indicators also suffer a limitation caused by differences in the education system in each of the six countries.

These diverge especially in the number of years of obligatory school attendance, which affects the use of an indicator related to the average number of study years. In some cases, the education system facilitates participation in the skilled labor market before reaching 18 years, while in other cases leaving school before the age of 18 is equivalent to incomplete secondary education. Adult Literacy rate: Percentage of the population, male and female, aged 15 years-old and over who can both write and read while understanding a short simple statement on everyday life UN Habitat, School leavers without graduation: Percentage of population aged between years old who left school without graduation.

Average Years of Study: Average of effective years of study in an urban population, aged 24 years old and higher. It represents levels of scholarity and development in specific areas. The indicator is calculated based solely on the population aged 18 years old and higher. In this case the reference values are: lowest level 9. This failure and the growing social dualization and recent exclusion might be reasons for the high percentage of students leaving schools without graduation.

The data concerning Mexico is not comparable, as it refers to the percentage of population without any graduation and is therefore mainly influenced by elderly people. A rather divergent result is provided by the higher education indicator showing a very high level in the case of Buenos Aires followed by Bogota and Santiago de Chile, meanwhile Mexico and Sao Paulo show low levels.

This result reveals an important difference to the evidence of a relative concentration of high technology and scientific production in the metropolitan regions of Sao Paulo, Buenos Aires and Santiago table Referring to Lima there are informed contradictory data locating the Peruvian capital in the top or in the worst position.

All six of the metropolitan cities that are discussed in this report have established important private education mechanisms on a national level. As this private system covers mostly only a wealthier part of the society it is of outstanding importance to address the issue of public investment in education. High public spending in education can be observed only in Sao Paulo and in a less outstanding manner in Buenos Aires.

Nevertheless in absolute terms public investment is relative high. This may be partially explained by the high and growing importance of the private education establishments receiving public subsidies. As expert estimations of important sustainability issues in Santiago invoke the education system, these will be discussed in City profile chapter IV.

It is especially useful to examine the case of Santiago de Chile in order to outline risks that exist in the long term despite good output indicators. The lowest public spending on education is reported in Lima. Inadequate housing conditions, informal settlements, low tenure security, and shortcomings of housing affordability represent some of the main challenges of sustainable urban growth. They are furthermore directly linked to the issues of risk and vulnerability, and governance of urban areas.

In terms of home ownership, there is a remarkable difference between the high levels in Mexico, Sao Paulo, Santiago and Buenos Aires on the one hand, and Bogota and Lima on the other hand table 5. In part this difference is explained by the public housing policy e. During the last several decades most Latin American metropolitan cities have shown a clear trend towards housing tenure and a decline in the percentage of rented flats.

Within Metropolitan Areas there are important spatial differences, related to price and cultural patterns, e. Another major issue relative to explaining housing tenure is affordability, namely the relationship between rent level and prices of buying a flat.

Buenos Aires, Mexico City and Sao Paulo are dominated by a high level of rent costs in relation to the average income. This explains, when combined with easy access to bank credits for several years, the high levels of housing tenure in these metropolitan cities.

Nevertheless, international comparison shows, that for example most of North American and also many of the European cities show relative cost levels which are considerably lower. Bogota Connolly Second number: ; Slum dwellers as percentage of the urban population in the respective country UN Habitat, Own calculation based on Moraes With regard to overcrowding, one can observe an outstandingly high level in the case of Sao Paulo and Mexico City.

The case of Mexico City should not be directly compared to the others as it refers to three municipalies with dominant irregular settlements Connolly Furthermore, the metropolitan areas of Lima and post-crisis Buenos Aires present relatively high frequencies of overcrowded homes.

On the other hand, in Bogota and Santiago de Chile, the overcrowding parameter is very low as they have applied strong public policies towards low income housing for several decades. The good results in combating overcrowding in Bogota and Santiago de Chile are mainly due to public housing policies and this should be contrasted with the predominance of small housing units in the same two cities.

As a consequence, the housing policy in these two cases will be discussed additionally in the City Profile section IV. For rented dwellings the percentage of monthly income dedicated on average to housing rental UN Habitat, 24 is used. UN Habitat, A room includes bedrooms, dining rooms, living rooms, servants' rooms, kitchens etc. Home ownership is the percentage of households owning or purchasing their home defined by the right of exclusive occupancy and use.

This includes housing units which are totally paid for as well as those purchased with bank credits if mortgage rates are paid on a regular basis. Slum population: Number or persons living in slum households. Concerning the size of housing spaces, this may be discussed by applying further indicators such as the number of rooms per housing unit, respectively the average number of persons per room.

On average, Bogota presents a number of 1. The indicator of m2 housing space per person or per household is another way to discuss the same issue. The average size of new housing spaces for low income groups at national level demonstrates diverging realities within Latin America. The highest values can be observed in Argentina 56 m2 followed by Mexico 45 m2 while Chile presents the lowest level of housing space for these income groups 35 m2.

In the case of Brazil, the respective number varies between 28 and 50 m2. Nevertheless, it has to be taken into account that the national level of data is influenced by the deficient housing and basic service conditions in rural areas. On a metropolitan scale, Sao Paulo and Bogota present the highest levels of slum population, followed by Lima tugurios.

In Santiago de Chile, the slum problem has been widely overcome. Nevertheless, the so called campamentos, characterized by illegal land occupation with precarious building structures and weak access to basic services, do exist.

In most of the cases, these are located in suburban and peri-urban spaces and have a minor impact in terms of population number. Nevertheless, in the Metropolitan Region of Santiago in there are campamentos registered, in which some 5. The situation of homeless people in urban areas is of rising importance; although the relative frequency is low around one per inhabitants , the tendency is rising and the absolute numbers illustrate the need for public action —in Sao Paulo for instance, there are currently around 12, homeless SEMPLA, As children are the population group most affected by environmental pollution impacts, they are the focus in most of the indicators discussed in this chapter.

The very low levels of infant mortality in Buenos Aires and in Santiago de Chile are clearly related to the high levels of income and improved health care.

Especially pregnancy and birth assistance and monitoring are completely implemented on a national level in Argentina and Chile. Notably higher levels of infant mortality are registered in Sao Paulo and Bogota and especially in Mexico City and Lima, being caused by income difference, poverty and deficiency in the public health services that are oriented towards low income social groups. In the Municipio Sao Paulo this indicator has been constantly reduced from around 50 per , to 25 per until 13 per in Sempla, Lima presented in the worst level among the metropolitan areas with 20 per thousand births according to Ministerio de la Mujer y Desarrollo Social , a level which was still below the national level in Peru.

Since then on a national level this rate has been reduced rapidly from 33 in the year to 17 per thousand births in UN Stat, b and it in Lima the rate was also considerably reduced: to 10 peer thousand births in INEGI, With regard to the under five mortality rate, as one might expect, Lima presents a high level as also does Bogota, meanwhile Sao Paulo shows intermediate level due to the high income disparities and the importance of extreme poverty in these metropolitan cities.

Coherent with the above presented data on infant mortality is the low level that Santiago de Chile and Buenos Aires presents see also the poverty indicators in chapter III. Somewhat surprisingly low is the level in Mexico City.

This indicator has been remarkably reduced in Lima from 23 as an average of the decade Lima Metropolitana, COSUDE, 3 to the current 14 percent see table 6. Infant mortality provides information most of all on quality of health systems and assistance during pregnancy and birth. Furthermore, the table gives evidence of the relative frequency of child death due to respiratory diseases and intestinal diseases, expressed as number per , children under five year age.

This age group is considered as the most vulnerable part of society also elderly people are highly vulnerable to these influences. These indicators are aimed directly at the analysis of sanitary conditions and the quality of air. The major challenge in using this indicator is the lack of reliable and comparable official statistics, which is why different individual reports about health conditions are used in each of the metropolitan regions.

This is an important restriction for data comparability. Definitions: Infant mortality rate: Probability of a child born in a specific year or period dying before reaching the age of one, if subject to age-specific mortality rates of that period. Expressed as number per 1, birth. Under five mortality rate: Probability of a child born in a specific year or period dying before reaching the age of five, if subject to age-specific mortality rates of that period WHO, The indicator considers people aged five years old and under and is influenced by the air quality conditions.

Child intestinal infectious disease: Considers children aged years old, and represents mainly water quality and efficient sewage systems. This relationship between pollution levels and respiratory diseases is even more evident in Santiago de Chile, where in the context of a low infant mortality rate, one can still observe a high occurrence of child deaths due to respiratory diseases. Therefore, in these two cases air pollution will be discussed in chapters IV. In spite of continuous reduction during the last 15 years, death rate from respiratory diseases is still a serious problem in Argentina, and Buenos Aires is showing extremely high levels compared to the other metropolitan areas.

Nevertheless the fact that it is much higher in the Province than in the city of Buenos Aires suggests that it is influenced rather by poverty factors than by urban air contamination Ministerio de Salud de la Argentina, Furthermore, clear differences within the metropolitan cities can be observed. The position of the City of Buenos Aires is an intermediate; meanwhile the province presents the highest value again probably caused by higher poverty and lower water and sanitation coverage.

Bogota, Buenos Aires and Lima all present very high levels of biological contamination of water bodies table 9-A and relevant deficiencies in housing conditions table 5. Total life expectancy at birth is used frequently as an overall indicator of human development conditions.

In the case of the present studies, it is directly influenced by the above mentioned conditions of child mortality. Particular effects like the influence of criminality on reduced life expectancy in Sao Paulo can be observed. As the murder victims are mostly young men, a statistical effect on lower life expectancy is shown. Nevertheless the differences in this indicator are very limited.

Noise measurement is of relevance for the sustainability of cities due to the health impacts which may be caused by continuous noise exposure as well as short exposure to extreme noise levels.

In the urban context, different major sources of noise are identified: road traffic, construction, industrial activities, leisure activities and Airports.

Nevertheless, the most important noise source is urban traffic. As table 7 shows, in all of the metropolitan cities discussed the main avenues are emitting noise levels which are far above the WHO limits see methodological notes. Especially in Lima the acustic contamination is apparently extremely high, due to traffic but also commercial activities and the presence of the mentiones airport see also PNUMA It has to be taken into account that the comparability of the presented data in this section is very limited as methodology is different and the selection the few measuring point has en direct effect on the presented data.

PNUMA, b: BBC Mundo. Definitions: Noise exposure by day and night : Represents the exposure to sound level, measured in dB A. Noise level main avenues: these are data noise levels registered at specific points mostly located at main avenues or intersections within the central areas of the respective cities.

Natural resources The third chapter of the comparative analysis section starts with an input perspective on consumption of natural resources, and afterwards focuses on flow-management data referring to the use and disposal of materials. Water consumption and wastewater treatment Assuring access to drinking water and wastewater treatment is directly linked to the UN Habitat Agenda Goal to manage supply and demand for water in an effective manner.

Nevertheless water is not only necessary for different human purposes. It is also a prerequisite for any ecological system and implicitly for environmental services. Therefore sustainable water management requires a balance of water offer and human water consumption.

In general, the issues of pricing and management of the water market show quite polarized positions UNDP, On the one hand, it is necessary to ensure access to drinking water for poor people; on the other hand, there is the claim that realistic prices are necessary in order to ensure the economic fundament of the services and in the long run one must generate awareness of the price of natural resources. An outstandingly high level of domestic water consumption can be observed in Buenos Aires and intermediate levels are observed in Mexico, Santiago de Chile and Sao Paulo.

In the case of Buenos Aires, this might be explained by the coincidence of relatively high income levels, high water availability and low price levels of water supply services controlled by the government. By contrast, Lima and Bogota present very low levels of water consumption. Bogota has experienced an important and socially differentiated increase in the cost of water reaching a high level which is on average the highest by far among the six metropolitan city sample.

In the case of Sao Paulo, a reduction of water losses has also been reported due to a new program of water loss control, renewal of infrastructure and control of clandestine water consumption PNUMA, e. Nevertheless, water losses in Sao Paulo Water consumption is also very high in Mexico City, the city is using water reserves of other water basins since several decades, and the infrastructure has severe water loss problems see also the city profile chapter on Mexico City.

The reported very high water prices are a very recent development and not yet reflected in the consumption level. In the case of Lima, one must acknowledge that this metropolitan city presents the lowest level of connectivity to piped water see table 3 and many non-registered wells represent an important source 2 The natural renewing rate of fresh water varies considerabely between different regions in function of e. Therefore the proportion between human water consumption and the regional natural renewal rate is the best indicator of the anthropogenic pressure on this resource in a certain region RHM expert consultation.

Hence not everywhere the data basis for this indicator is given, reason why it could not be applied in this report. Furthermore, in Lima an important percentage of water consumption is not billed by the providing enterprise, due for example to sub registration and water loss caused by a deficient infrastructure.

Capacity a million inh. AySA, El Universal Aguas Andinas, AMBA, own estimation based on installed capacity of water treatment, average consumption and the population number table 1. Wastewater treatment shows huge differences between the situation in Santiago de Chile and the other cities, especially in terms of installed capacity but also regarding the overall coverage percentage of households. In Santiago, there are two main water treatment plants: El Trebal 4. A similar magnitude of water treatment is observed in Sao Paulo, which is served primarily by four water treatment plants: ABC 1.

During the last several years, the state government made an outstanding investment in the water sewage area: during the first stage 1. Both indicators are related to the economic development and general consumption level on the one hand and production activities on the other hand. Therefore, it is relevant to distinguish between domestic use and total consumption.

The main limitations of these indicators are caused by difficulties in measuring the individual consumption of households as in some cases there are important levels of losses in the water supply system e. Mexico City causing a distortion of data. Therefore, there are different data on: i consumption as the sum of billing and ii consumption as the amount of drinking water supplied to the system.

The indicator of wastewater treatment is a direct result of water consumption and the formalization of water supply systems. It represents an important indicator regarding the Habitat Agenda Goal to reduce urban pollution. Definitions: Water consumption: Average consumption of water in liters per day and per person making a distinction between the total consumption, which includes e.

Wastewater treatment coverage: Percentage of all wastewater undergoing some form of treatment primary, secondary or tertiary UN Habitat, Coverage: this indicator refers to the relation of treated wastewater and the total amount of wastewater within a year period in percentage.

We use the water price information provided by respective sources. Countries with a daily water consumption of less than 50 l per capita is considered water poverty UNDP, World Bank, UN Habitat, Worst value is 0. The indicator is used as a context for the discussion of affordability and socially differentiated water price levels.

The water management topic will therefore be discussed in the City Profile section for the case of Lima IV. Water pollution Contamination of the main bodies of water is presented with reference to its respective biochemical aspects; later on pollution data by main chemical agents, especially heavy metals, are presented.

The main cause of problems pertaining to water pollution is the lack of and inefficiency of sewage treatment —an important part of which is generated by private households.

In the short term, acute health risks are linked to the presence of coliforms e. If sewage water polluted by heavy metals is used for irrigation, one can observe long term risks due to the accumulation of heavy metals in the food chain and their toxic effects on human beings.

Own calculation based on Acumar Montelongo et al : Paglth'an Sash of Striking Waist. Augmented Exarchic Sash of Striking Waist.

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Found growing in the Sea of Clouds, this variety of kelp is known for its disinfecting properties. Native to Gyr Abania, this frog possesses a poison that induces mild paralysis in those predators that fail to heed its telltale hue. Boasting a beautiful, pearlescent shell, this small Far Eastern clam is popularly used for decorative purposes. Fragrant Sweetfish Seafood. Hailing from the Azim Steppe, this variety of sweetfish has taken to consuming water herbs that imbue its flesh with a tantalizing fragrance.

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A bolt of highly durable cloth, ideal for use in garments worn when venturing into parts unknown. Discovered in the ocean depths, it bears the marks of having the flesh stripped from the bone by wavekin.

Patient Necessity Components Miscellany. An assortment of components suitable for crafting daily necessities for the use of the patients of Ser Vaindreau's Grace. Medical Supply Components Miscellany.

An assortment of components suitable for crafting medical supplies for the treatment of the patients of Ser Vaindreau's Grace. Rehabilitation Aid Components Miscellany. An assortment of components suitable for crafting rehabilitation equipment for the use of the patients of Ser Vaindreau's Grace. High Tea Components Miscellany. An assortment of components suitable for crafting items required for hosting high tea at Ser Vaindreau's Grace.

Art Supply Components Miscellany. An assortment of components suitable for crafting art supplies for the enjoyment of the patients of Ser Vaindreau's Grace. Patient Necessity Materials Miscellany. Medical Supply Materials Miscellany. Rehabilitation Aid Materials Miscellany. These strong and sturdy materials should make strong and sturdy rehabilitation aids for the patients of Ser Vaindreau's Grace.

High Tea Ingredients Miscellany. No high tea is complete without scrumptious sweets, and the ingredients needed in their creation, such as syrups, never go astray. Art Supply Materials Miscellany. If art is like salve for the soul, then these materials are the ingredients for said salve. Patient Necessities Miscellany. From bars of soap to dining utensils, the patients of Ser Vaindreau's Grace have need of myriad items during their stay. Medical Supplies Miscellany.

Rehabilitation Aids Miscellany. No few patients of Ser Vaindreau's Grace suffer from debilitating injuries, and rehabilitation aids are needed to help them recover and regain independence.

High Tea Essentials Miscellany. Tea is good and high tea is better. Painting is at once relaxing and rehabilitative, and these art supplies will do much good for the patients of Ser Vaindreau's Grace. Resplendent Carpenter's Material A Miscellany. A sealed package containing carpenter's materials, most likely wood or something vaguely tree-related, at the very least.

Resplendent Blacksmith's Material A Miscellany. Resplendent Armorer's Material A Miscellany. This box of armorer's supplies is about as heavy as one might expect. Resplendent Goldsmith's Material A Miscellany. The clinking sound coming from within is suspiciously similar to that of broken glass. Resplendent Leatherworker's Material A Miscellany. Resplendent Weaver's Material A Miscellany. Take care when delving into this sack as there are probably needles inside.

Resplendent Alchemist's Material A Miscellany. The life of an alchemist tends to be something of a mixed bag, much like the manner in which their supplies are delivered.

Resplendent Culinarian's Material A Miscellany. The strange way in which the package is twitching indicates the freshness of the ingredients inside, if one takes "fresh" to mean "still alive. Resplendent Carpenter's Material B Miscellany. Resplendent Blacksmith's Material B Miscellany. While blacksmiths tend to specialize in smashing hot bits of metal with a hammer, they are not averse to employing little pots of mysterious gunk from time to time.

Resplendent Armorer's Material B Miscellany. Presumably the oily substance within is used to reduce scraping between the various pieces of metal, or perhaps for the armorer to smear onto their brow to stop sweat from running into their eyes.

Resplendent Goldsmith's Material B Miscellany. While the final product may indeed turn out to be resplendent, this murky paste is anything but. Resplendent Leatherworker's Material B Miscellany. Quite where this unidentified substance fits into the leatherworker's grand schemes is anyone's guess.

Resplendent Weaver's Material B Miscellany. According to the Boutique of Splendors, this oily substance can be applied to a weaver's needle to help it glide through the fabric with the greatest of ease.

Resplendent Alchemist's Material B Miscellany. As with many materials used by alchemists, the recommended use for this substance is, "Throw a good dollop into the mixture and see what happens. Resplendent Culinarian's Material B Miscellany. It is said of this viscous paste that a spoonful a day keeps the chirurgeon away, though that may be largely because of the smell.

Resplendent Carpenter's Material C Miscellany. Resplendent Blacksmith's Material C Miscellany. Resplendent Armorer's Material C Miscellany. Resplendent Goldsmith's Material C Miscellany. Resplendent Leatherworker's Material C Miscellany. Save to Collection. Tip Designer. Share this thing. Send to Thingiverse user. Remixed from: Select a Collection.

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